Article

Fernanda C.S. Bernardes, MSc, PhD, Santa Cruz State University (Rod. Jorge Amado, Km 16 - Salobrinho, Ilhéus - BA, 45662-900, Brazil); iD ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7333-9361; e-mail: bernardes.fernandasimas@gmail.com
Hllytchaikra F. Fehlberg, PhD, post-doctorate candidate at Santa Cruz State University (Rod. Jorge Amado, Km 16 - Salobrinho, Ilhéus - BA, 45662-900, Brazil); iD ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0547-6182; e-mail: ferrazhellen@hotmail.com
Suelen S. Ferreira, MSc, veterinarian and researcher at Tamandua Institute (R. Paraíba, 255, Jardim dos Estados, Campo Grande – MS, 79020-050, Brazil); iD ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0007-3440-8230; e-mail: suelen.sferreira@gmail.com
Gastón Giné, PhD, visiting professor at Santa Cruz State University (Rod. Jorge Amado, Km 16 - Salobrinho, Ilhéus - BA, 45662-900, Brazil); iD ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1470-3674; e-mail: gastongine10@gmail.com
Vinícius P.O. Gasparotto, PhD, veterinarian and researcher at Tamandua Institute (R. Paraíba, 255, Jardim dos Estados, Campo Grande – MS, 79020-050, Brazil); iD ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7847-2364; e-mail: vpo.gasparotto@gmail.com
George R. Albuquerque, PhD, professor at Santa Cruz State University (Rod. Jorge Amado, Km 16 - Salobrinho, Ilhéus - BA, 45662-900, Brazil); iD ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0556-8856; e-mail: gralbu@uesc.br
Flávia R. Miranda, PhD, visiting professor for conservation medicine at Santa Cruz State University (Rod. Jorge Amado, Km 16 - Salobrinho, Ilhéus - BA, 45662-900, Brazil), founder, veterinarian, and researcher at Tamandua Institute (R. Paraíba, 255, Jardim dos Estados, Campo Grande – MS, 79020-050, Brazil); iD ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3804-3781; e-mail: frmiranda@uesc.br

Bernardes F.C.S., Fehlberg H.F., Ferreira S.S., Giné G., Gasparotto V.P.O., Albuquerque G.R., Miranda F.R. 2025. Investigation of pathogens in Bradypus torquatus, Brazil. Nature Conservation Research 10(4): 43–52. https://dx.doi.org/10.24189/ncr.2025.022

Bradypus torquatus is the only sloth species threatened by extinction in South America and is classified as endangered due to extinction due to its severely fragmented and reduced area of occupation. This species is a restricted arboreal mammal, spending much of its time resting in the treetops and descending to the ground only to defecate. Its contact with the soil, other animals and vegetation, shared with various species, and the presence of humans and domestic animals near natural reserves, raises the possibility of dissemination of infectious agents. Due to the scarcity of data and health studies concerning B. torquatus populations, the aim of this study was to identify pathogens in blood samples from B. torquatus in northeastern Brazil. All the individuals were considered healthy in the physical examinations performed by a veterinarian. Out of 42 samples tested for Hepatozoon spp., PCR analysis performed on whole blood detected infection in 11 sloths. All samples tested for Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp., Mycoplasma spp., Rickettsia spp., Babesia spp., and Toxoplasma gondii were negative. No pathogens were found in blood smears. Chromatogram analysis was possible for seven sequences among the eleven positive results for Hepatozoon spp. (64%) and all of these showed mixed chromatogram traces. Thus, the analysis on the consensus sequences showed a single case of 100% genetic similarity to Hepatozoon spp., but with only 29 base pairs. In addition, the analysis on the individual sequences (forward and reverse) detected one animal possibly infected with Hepatozoon canis (reverse strand with 263 bp and 93% similarity). This study provides the first identification of Hepatozoon spp. in B. torquatus and has pioneered research on pathogens in B. torquatus.

hemoparasite, modified agglutination test, northern maned sloth, parasitology, PCR

Received: 14.02.2025. Revised: 02.09.2025. Accepted: 11.09.2025.

Almeida A.P. 2011. Pesquisa de Rickettsia, Ehrlichia, Anaplasma, Babesia, Hepatozoon e Leishmania em cachorro-do-mato (Cerdocyon thous) de vida livre do estado do Espírito Santo. MSc. Thesis. São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo. 88 p.
Altizer S., Foufopoulos J., Gager A. 2001. Diseases and Conservation. In: Encyclopedia of Biodiversity. Academic Press. P. 109–126. DOI: 10.1016/b0-12-226865-2/00072-9
Bernardes F.C.S., Martins T.F., Ferreira S.S., Rosa B.F., Ruiz-Miranda C.R., Giné G.A.F., Soffiati F.L., Miranda F.R. 2022. Sloth's giant tick (Amblyomma varium) parasitizing free-ranging maned sloth (Bradypus torquatus) in the Atlantic Forest biome, Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Veterinary Medicine 44: e004021. DOI: 10.29374/2527-2179.bjvm004021
Breitschwerdt E.B., Hegarty B.C., Hancock S.I. 1998. Sequential Evaluation of Dogs Naturally Infected with Ehrlichia canis, Ehrlichia chaffeensis, Ehrlichia equi, Ehrlichia ewingii, or Bartonella vinsonii. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 36(9): 2645–2651. DOI: 10.1128/jcm.36.9.2645-2651.1998
Brook B.W., Sodhi N.S., Bradshaw C.J. 2008. Synergies among extinction drivers under global change. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 23(8): 453–460. DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2008.03.011
Calchi A.C., Vultão J.G., Alves M.H., Yogui D.R., Desbiez A.L.J., De Santi M., Santana M.S., da Silva T.M.V., Werther K., Teixeira M.M.G., Machado R.Z., André M.R. 2020. Ehrlichia spp. and Anaplasma spp. in Xenarthra mammals from Brazil, with evidence of novel 'Candidatus Anaplasma spp.'. Scientific Reports 10(1): 12615. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-69263-w
Canale G.R., Peres C.A., Guidorizzi C.E., Gatto C.A.F., Kierulff M.C.M. 2012. Pervasive Defaunation of Forest Remnants in a Tropical Biodiversity Hotspot. PLoS ONE 7(8): e41671. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041671
Chiarello A.G. 1998. Diet of the Atlantic forest maned sloth Bradypus torquatus (Xenarthra: Bradypodidae). Journal of Zoology 246(1): 11–19. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1998.tb00127.x
Chiarello A., Miranda F.R., Xavier G.A.A., Moraes-Barros N., Vaz S.M. 2018. Bradypus torquatus Illiger, 1811. In: Livro Vermelho da Fauna Brasileira Ameaçada de Extinção. Volume 2 – Mamíferos. 1^st ed. Brasília: ICMBio/MMA. P. 34–40.
Daszak P., Cunningham A.A., Hyatt A.D. 2001. Anthropogenic environmental change and the emergence of infectious diseases in wildlife. Acta Tropica 78(2): 103–116. DOI: 10.1016/s0001-706x(00)00179-0
Davidson W.R., Calpin J.P. 1976. Hepatozoon griseisciuri infection in gray squirrels of the southeastern United States. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 12(1): 72–76. DOI: 10.7589/0090-3558-12.1.72
Dubey J.P., Desmonts G. 1987. Serological responses of equids fed Toxoplasma gondii oocysts. Equine Veterinary Journal 19(4): 337–339. DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1987.tb01426.x
East M.L., Wibbelt G., Lieckfeldt D., Ludwig A., Goller K., Wilhelm K., Schares G., Thierer D., Hofer H. 2008. A Hepatozoon species genetically distinct from H. canis infecting spotted hyenas in the Serengeti ecosystem, Tanzania. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 44(1): 45–52. DOI: 10.7589/0090-3558-44.1.45
Galetti M., Gonçalves F., Villar N., Zipparro V.B., Paz C., Mendes C., Lautenschlager L., Souza Y., Akkawi P., Pedrosa F., Bulascoschi L., Bello C., Sevá A.P., Sales L., Genes L., Abra F., Bovendorp R.S. 2021. Causes and Consequences of Large-Scale Defaunation in the Atlantic Forest. In: M.C.M. Marques, C.E.V. Grelle (Eds.): The Atlantic Forest. Cham: Springer. P. 297–324. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-55322-7_14
Giné G.A.F., Cassano C.R., de Almeida S.S., Faria D. 2015. Activity budget, pattern and rhythm of maned sloths (Bradypus torquatus): Responses to variations in ambient temperature. Mammalian Biology 80(6): 459–467. DOI: 10.1016/j.mambio.2015.07.003
INPE. 2019. SOS Mata Atlântica e INPE lançam novos dados do Atlas do bioma. Available from http://www.inpe.br/noticias/noticia.php?Cod_Noticia=5115
Keel M.K., Terio K.A., McAloose D. 2018. Canidae, Ursidae, and Ailuridae. In: K.A. Terio, D. Mcaloose, J.St. Leger (Eds.): Pathology of Wildlife and Zoo Animals. Academic Press. P. 229–261. DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-805306-5.00009-2
Khoshnegah J., Mohri M., Mirshahi A., Mousavi S.J. 2012. Detection of Hepatozoon sp. in a Persian Leopard (Panthera pardus ciscaucasica). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 48(3): 776–780. DOI: 10.7589/0090-3558-48.3.776
Kocan A.A., Cummings C.A., Panciera R.J., Mathew J.S., Ewing S.A., Barker R.W. 2000. Naturally Occurring and Experimentally Transmitted Hepatozoon americanum in Coyotes from Oklahoma. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 36(1): 149–153. DOI: 10.7589/0090-3558-36.1.149
Labruna M.B., Whitworth T., Horta M.C., Bouyer D.H., McBride J.W., Pinter A., Popov V., Gennari S.M., Walker D.H. 2004. Rickettsia species infecting Amblyomma cooperi ticks from an area in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, where Brazilian spotted fever is endemic. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 42(1): 90–98. DOI: 10.1128/jcm.42.1.90-98.2004
Lopes G.S., Cassano C.R., Mureb L.S., Miranda F.R., Cruz‐Neto A.P., Giné G.A.F. 2023. Combined effect of ambient temperature and solar radiation on maned sloths' behaviour and detectability. Austral Ecology 48(7): 1344–1360. DOI: 10.1111/aec.13377
Mercer S.H., Jones L.P., Rappole J.H., Twedt D., Laack L.L., Craig T.M. 1988. Hepatozoon sp. in Wild Carnivores in Texas. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 24(3): 574–576. DOI: 10.7589/0090-3558-24.3.574
Morand S. 2015. (macro-) Evolutionary ecology of parasite diversity: From determinants of parasite species richness to host diversification. International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife 4(1): 80–87. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2015.01.001
Paiva K.A.R. 2016. Rickettsia sp. em roedores e marsupiais silvestres do Rio Grande do Norte, Brasil. MSc. Thesis. Mossoró: Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido. 62 p.
Pedersen A.B., Jones K.E., Nunn C.L., Altizer S. 2007. Infectious Diseases and Extinction Risk in Wild Mammals. Conservation Biology 21(5): 1269–1279. DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00776.x
Pinto C.M., Helgen K.M., Fleischer R.C., Perkins S.L. 2013. Hepatozoon Parasites (Apicomplexa: Adeleorina) in Bats. Journal of Parasitology 99(4): 722–724. DOI: 10.1645/12-18.1
Ribeiro M.C., Metzger J.P., Martensen A.C., Ponzoni F.J., Hirota M.M. 2009. The Brazilian Atlantic Forest: How much is left, and how is the remaining forest distributed? Implications for conservation. Biological Conservation 142(6): 1141–1153. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2009.02.021
Rezende C.L., Scarano F.R., Assad E.D., Joly C.A., Metzger J.P., Strassburg B.B.N., Tabarelli M., Fonseca G.A., Mittermeier R.A. 2018. From hotspot to hopespot: An opportunity for the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation 16(4): 208–214. DOI: 10.1016/j.pecon.2018.10.002
Santos P., Chiarello A., Miranda F., Moraes-Barros N. 2025. Bradypus torquatus. In: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2025: e.T237137603A237139785. Available from https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2025-1.RLTS.T237137603A237139785.en
Silva A.A.B. 2017. Ixodofauna Em Fragmentos de Mata Atlântica no Estado da Bahia: Relação Parasito-hospedeiro e Detecção Molecular de Patógenos Associados. MSc. Salvador: Universidade Federal da Bahia. 106 p.
Silva M.R.L., Fornazari F., Demoner L.C., Teixeira C.R., Langoni H., O'Dwyer L.H. 2017. Didelphis albiventris naturally infected with Hepatozoon canis in southeastern Brazil. Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases 8(6): 878–881. DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2017.07.005
Smith L.H., Ruple A. 2021. Idly infected: a review of infectious agents in populations of two- and three-toed sloths (Choloepus species and Bradypus species). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 51(4): 789–798. DOI: 10.1638/2018-0188
Soares H.S., Marcili A., Barbieri A.R.M., Minervino A.H.H., Malheiros A.F., Gennari S.M., Labruna M.B. 2017. Novel Anaplasma and Ehrlichia organisms infecting the wildlife of two regions of the Brazilian Amazon. Acta Tropica 174: 82–87. DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2017.07.006
Tazerji S.S., Nardini R., Safdar M., Shehata A.A., Duarte P.M. 2022. An Overview of Anthropogenic Actions as Drivers for Emerging and Re-Emerging Zoonotic Diseases. Pathogens 11(11): 1376. DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11111376
Voirin B., Kays R., Wikelski M., Lowman M. 2013. Why Do Sloths Poop on the Ground?. In: M. Lowman, S. Devy, T. Ganesh (Eds.): Treetops at Risk. New York: Springer. P. 195–199. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-7161-5_19
Volokhov D.V., Becker D.J., Bergner L.M., Camus M.S., Orton R.J., Chizhikov V.E., Altizer S.M., Streicker D.G. 2017. Novel hemotropic mycoplasmas are widespread and genetically diverse in vampire bats. Epidemiology and Infection 145(15): 3154–3167. DOI: 10.1017/s095026881700231x
Warner R.E. 1968. The role of introduced diseases in the extinction of the endemic Hawaiian aviafauna. Condor 70(2): 101–120.
Wilkinson D.A., Marshall J.C., French N.P., Hayman D.T.S. 2018. Habitat fragmentation, biodiversity loss and the risk of novel infectious disease emergence. Journal of the Royal Society Interface 15(149): 20180403. DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2018.0403
Woodroffe R. 1999. Managing disease threats to wild mammals. Animal Conservation 2(3): 185–193. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-1795.1999.tb00064.x