Article

Zhigang Jiang, PhD, Professor of the Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences; Executive Director of the Endangered Species Scientific Commission (P.R. China, Beijing, 100101, China); e-mail: jiangzg@ioz.ac.cn, zhigangjiang@vip.sina.com
Hao Zong, PhD, Professor of the Sichuan Normal University (Chengdu, 610066, China); e-mail: 493274915@qq.com

Jiang Z., Zong H. 2019. Reintroduction of the Przewalski's horse in China: status quo and outlook. Nature Conservation Research 4(Suppl.2): 15–22. https://dx.doi.org/10.24189/ncr.2019.045

The Przewalski's horse Equus ferus przewalskii was extinct in the wild in the middle of the XX century. Since 1985, the Chinese government has formulated a three-step plan of «the introduction of captive breeding horses – establishing a semi-free population – the restoration of a population in the wild» and carried out the reintroduction of the Przewalski's horses. The first three batches of wild horses were introduced to Xinjiang Wild Horse Breeding Centre, Wuwei Endangered Species Breeding Centre and Beijing Nanhaizi Milu Park. After acclimation and captive breeding, those Przewalski's horses were softly released into the nature reserves in its original ranges in the Mt. Kalamaili Nature Reserve, the Anxi Extreme-arid Desert Nature Reserve and the Dunhuang West Lake Nature Reserve in the new millennium. The released horses are allowed to retain to the large fenced areas at releasing sites with supplementary feed and water. Thus, the wild horses in Chine formed the Xinjiang population, the Wuwei-Dunhuang population and the Beijing-Anxi population. All 23 wild horses that survived in Anxi Extreme-arid Desert Nature Reserve in 2017 were born after the re-translocation from Beijing Nanhaizi Milu Park. The number of wild horses in the Beijing Nanhaizi Milu Park increased from two in 1998 to five by the end of 2018. By the end of 2018, there are 413 wild horse descendants from the reintroduced herd in the Xinjiang population. Among them, 89 wild horses were kept in the breeding paddocks of the Xinjiang Wild Horse Breeding Centre, 102 were semi-free ranging in the fenced area of the centre, and 221 re-wild horses lived in the Mt. Kalamaili Nature Reserve. Meanwhile, the Przewalski's horse population in the Dunhuang West Lake Nature Reserve increased to 60. The Wuwei Endangered Animal Breeding Centre released seven wild horses in its Minqin Qinghu Base near the Badanjilin desert. Habitat deterioration, inbreeding, parasitic diseases, wolf predation, infanticide and crossbreeding with domestic horses are the major problems in all Przewalski's horse populations in China. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Working Group downgraded the Przewalski's wild horse to the status of «Endangered» mainly based on the status of wild horses in Mongolia. Nevertheless, the Red List category of Przewalski's horse in China was still «Extinct in Wild» because the wild horses in these populations still need artificial supplementary feed and water, also need to add new breeding individuals. Thus, real wild population has not yet been established in China.

Anxi Extreme Arid Desert Nature Reserve, Beijing Nanhaizi Milu Park, captive breeding, Dunhuang West Lake Nature Reserve, Equus ferus przewalskii, Kalamaili Nature Reserve, re-wilding, soft releasing, Wuwei Endangered Animal Breeding Centre, Xinjiang Wild Horse Breeding Centre

Received: 22.04.2019. Revised: 30.05.2019. Accepted: 02.06.2019.

Allen G.M. 1938. The Mammals of China and Mongolia. Vol. 4 (Part 1). New York. 1280–1287.
Boyd L., Houpt, K.A. (Eds). 1994. Przewalski's Horse: The History and Biology of an Endangered Species. New York: State University of New York Press. 313 p.
Boyd L., Bandi, N. 2002. Reintroduction of takhi to Hustai National Park, Mongolia: time budget and synchrony of activity pre- and post-release. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 78(2): 87–102. DOI: 10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00088-6
Chen J., Hu D., Cao J., Li K., Lv Q. 2007. Male infanticide behaviour of Equus przewalskii and its impact on wild horse reintroduction. Chinese Bulletin of Biology 42: 6–8. [In Chinese]
Dong T., Chu H., Liu D., Ma J., Zhang J., Ge Y, Bu L. 2015. Food habits of wolves (Canis lupus) during summer and autumn in the Mt. Kalamaili Ungulate Nature Reserve, Xinjiang. Arid Zone Research 32(3): 512–517. [In Chinese]
Gao X. 1984. Preliminary report of Przewalski horse. Arid Zone Research 1(1): 71–72.
Grum-Grzhimailo G.E. 1892. The wild horse (Equus przewalskii). From the diary of a travel to Chine in 1889–1890. Niva 17: 374–382. [In Russian]
IUCN. 2017. From extinction to free ranging by successful reintroduction. Available from: https://www.iucn.org/news/commission-ecosystem-management/201803/extinction-free-ranging-successful-reintroduction
Jiang Z. 2004. Wild Horse (Equus przewalskii). Chinese Journal of Zoology 39: 100–101. [In Chinese]
Jiang Z., Feng Z., Yu C., Zhang L., Xia J., Ding Y. Lindsay N. 2000. Reintroduction and Recovery of Père David's Deer in China. Wildlife Society Bulletin 28(3): 681–687. DOI: 10.2307/3783620
Jiang Z., Jiang J., Wang Y., Zhang E., Zhang Y., Li L., Xie F., Cai B., Cao L., Zheng G., Dong L., Zhang Z., Ding P., Luo Z., Zheng, G., Ding C., Ma Z., Tang S., Cao W., Li C., Hu H., Ma Y., Wu Y., Wang Y., Zhou K., Liu S., Chen Y., Li J., Feng Z., Wang Y., Wang B., Li C., Song X., Cai L., Zang C., Zeng Y., Meng Z., Fang H., Ping X. 2016. Red List of China's Vertebrates. Biodiversity Science 24(5): 500–551. DOI: 10.17520/biods.2016076 [In Chinese]
Kaczensky P., Šturm M.B., Sablin M.V., Voigt C.C., Smith S., Ganbaatar O., Balint B., Walzer C., Spasskaya N.N. 2017. Stable isotopes reveal diet shift from pre-extinction to reintroduced Przewalski's horses. Scientific Reports 7(1): 5950. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-05329-6
Li K., Wu Z., Hu D., Cao J., Wang C. 2007. A report on new causative agent (Gasterophilus spp.) of the myiasis of Przewalski's horse occurred in China. Chinese Journal of Animal and Veterinary Sciences: 38(8): 837–840. [In Chinese]
Liu G., Shafer A., Zimmermann W., Hu D., Wang W., Chu, H., Cao J., Zhao C. 2014. Evaluating the reintroduction project of Przewalski's horse in China using genetic and pedigree data. Biological Conservation 171: 288–298. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2013.11.022
Pei P., Wang L., Shao Y., Shi C., Yang Y., Bai X. 2018. Re-introduction Przewalski's horse's breeding success and population viability analyses in Anxi National Nature Reserve. Acta Theriologica Sinica 38(2): 128–139. DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.150117 [In Chinese]
Przewalski N. 1884. Reisen in Tibet und am oberen Lauf des Gelben Flusses in den Jahren 1879 bis 1880. Jena: Stein Nordheim. 269 p.
Stephens P.R., Altizer S., Ezenwa V.O., Gittleman J.L., Barbara E.M., Huang H., Pappalardo P. 2019. Parasite sharing in wild ungulates and their predators: effects of phylogeny, range overlap, and trophic links. Journal Animal Ecology. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12987.
Xu X. Huang Y., Hu J., Qi C. 1995. Parasites and their repelling of Equus przewalskii in Xinjiang. Chinese Journal of Veterinary Medicine 7: 16. [In Chinese]
Wakefield S., Knowles J., Zimmermann W., Dierendonck M.V. 2002. Status and Action Plan for the Przewalski's Horse (Equus ferus przewalskii). In: P.D. Moehlman (Ed.): Equids: Zebras, Asses and Horses. Cambridge, United Kingdom: IUCN Publications Services Unit. P. 82–92.
Wang H., He Z., Wang H., Niu Y. 2012. Study on survival status of reintroduced Equus przewalskii in Dunhuang West Lake National Nature Reserve. Journal of Gansu Forestry Science and Technology 37: 44–46. [In Chinese]
Wang Y., Chu H., Han L., Ge Y., Tao Y., Bu L. 2014. Activity of Canis lupus in the Karamori Mountain Ungulate Nature Reserve based on trap technique of infrared camera. Arid Zone Research 31: 771–778. [In Chinese]
Wang W., Xiao S., Huang H., Li K., Zhang D., Chu H., Guo Y., Gao W. 2016. Diversity and infection of Gasterophilus spp. in Mongol-Xinjiang Region and Qinghai Tibet Region. Scientia Silvae Sinicae 52(2): 134–139. DOI: 10.11707/j.1001-7488.20160217 [In Chinese]
Wang Y., Chu H., Han L., Tao Y., Bu L., Liu Z., Jiang Z. 2016. Factors affecting the home range of reintroduced Equus przewalskii in the Mt. Kalamaili Ungulate Nature Reserve. Acta Ecologica Sinica 36(2): 545–553. DOI: 10.5846/stxb201402090224 [In Chinese]
Xia C., Cao J., Zhang H., Gao X., Yang W., David B. 2014. Reintroduction of Przewalski's horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) in Xinjiang, China: The status and experience. Biological Conservation 177: 142–147. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2014.06.021
Zhang J., Yan H., Ma C. 1990. 1987–1990 Equus przewalskii Breeding Report. Chinese Journal of Wildlife 20: 27–29. [In Chinese]
Zhang H., Sun L., Cao J. 2002. The Breeding status of captive przewalskii horse in Xinjiang. Chinese Journal of Zoology 37: 70–72. [In Chinese]
Zhang H., Li K., Chen J., Hu D. 2007. Monitoring of Equus przewalskii parasites. Gansu Animal and Veterinary Sciences 27: 94–96. [In Chinese]
Zhang J., Ma C., Yan H. 1994a. Main measures to improve the reproduction rate of Equus przewalskii under captive conditions. Chinese Journal of Wildlife 24: 35–36. [In Chinese]
Zhang J., Ma C., Yan H. 1994b. Some understanding on improving the reproduction rate of Equus przewalskii under captive conditions. Chinese Journal of Zoology 29: 54–57. [In Chinese]
Zhang Y., Zhang F., Cao J., Hu D., Chu H. 2014. Status and quality of water sources in the Kalamari Ungulate Nature Reserve – a case study in the released area of Equus przewalskii. Arid Zone Research 31: 665–671. [In Chinese]